Oxazepam (oxazepam)

Dosage of oxazepam must be individualized, and the smallest effective dosage should be used (especially in geriatric or debilitated patients and in those with low serum albumin) to avoid oversedation.

For the symptomatic treatment of mild to moderate anxiety, the usual adult dosage of oxazepam is 10-15 mg 3 or 4 times daily. For severe anxiety or the management of agitation associated with acute alcohol withdrawal, 15-30 mg may be given 3 or 4 times daily. In geriatric patients, oxazepam therapy should be initiated with 10 mg 3 times daily and increased to 15 mg 3 or 4 times daily, if necessary. In patients who have received prolonged (e.g., for several months) oxazepam therapy, abrupt discontinuance of the drug should be avoided since manifestations of withdrawal can be precipitated; if the drug is to be discontinued in such patients, it is recommended that dosage be gradually tapered.

Dosage of oxazepam for children 6-12 years of age has not been clearly established.

Oxazepam is administered orally in divided doses.

There is no enhanced messaging for this drug.

Contraindicated Drug Combination: This drug combination is contraindicated and generally should not be dispensed or administered to the same patient.

Sedative Hypnotics; Alcohol/Sodium Oxybate

SEVERITY LEVEL: 1-Contraindicated Drug Combination: This drug combination is contraindicated and generally should not be dispensed or administered to the same patient.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Oxybate may be associated with respiratory depression. As oxybate is taken at bedtime, concurrent use with alcohol or hypnotics may increase the risk for respiratory depression or loss of consciousness.(1-3) Primidone is metabolized to phenobarbital.

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of sodium oxybate and sedative hypnotics or alcohol may further increase the risk for respiratory depression and profound sedation or coma.(1,2) Fatalities have been reported.(3)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Based upon FDA evaluation of deaths in patients taking sodium oxybate, risk factors may include: use of multiple drugs which depress the CNS, more rapid than recommended oxybate dose titration, exceeding the maximum recommended oxybate dose, and prescribing for unapproved uses such as fibromyalgia, insomnia or migraine. Note that in oxybate clinical trials for narcolepsy 78% - 85% of patients were also receiving concomitant CNS stimulants.(1-3)

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: The FDA states that sodium oxybate is contraindicated in patients also taking hypnotics or alcohol.(1,2) Significant quantities of alcohol may be present in medicinal products. Alcohol is is used to improve docetaxel and paclitaxel solubility. - The quantity of alcohol in paclitaxel injection formulations (0.385-0.396 grams/mL) is similar across manufacturers. A paclitaxel 200 mg dose contains approximately 13 grams of alcohol. - The quantity of alcohol in docetaxel formulations varies approximately 3-fold depending upon the manufacturer. FDA data on alcohol content (4): Product Manufacturer Alcohol/200 mg dose Docetaxel Inj. Pfizer 6.4 grams Docetaxel Inj. Sandoz 5.5 grams Docetaxel Inj. Accord 4.0 grams Taxotere-one vial Sanofi 4.0 grams formulation Docetaxel Inj. Hospira 3.7 grams Docefrez Sun Pharma 2.9 grams Taxotere-two vial Sanofi 2.0 grams formulation

DISCUSSION: The FDA evaluated sodium oxybate postmarket fatal adverse event reports from the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System(AERS)and from the manufacturer. Although report documentation was not always optimal or complete, useful information was obtained. Factors which may have contributed to fatal outcome: concomitant use of one or more drugs which depress the CNS, more rapid than recommended upward dose titration, exceeding the maximum recommended oxybate dose, and prescribing for unapproved uses such as fibromyalgia, insomnia or migraine. Many deaths occurred in patients with serious psychiatric disorders such as depression and substance abuse. Other concomitant diseases may have also contributed to respiratory and CNS depressant effects of oxybate.(3)

Severe Interaction: Action is required to reduce the risk of severe adverse interaction.

Benzodiazepines/Clozapine

SEVERITY LEVEL: 2-Severe Interaction: Action is required to reduce the risk of severe adverse interaction.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: The exact mechanism is unknown. Some benzodiazepines may increase clozapine levels.(1)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent administration of clozapine with a benzodiazepine may result in orthostatic hypotension, delirium, collapse, profound sedation, respiratory arrest, and/or cardiac arrest.(2-3)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Patients with preexisting cardiovascular, liver, organic brain disease(1) or sleep apnea may be predisposed to the interaction. The interaction may be more likely when initiating clozapine therapy, when restarting clozapine after a brief clozapine-free interval, or when adding clozapine to benzodiazepine therapy.(1,2)

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: The concurrent use of clozapine with benzodiazepines should be approached with caution, especially in patients who have recently started or restarted clozapine therapy. Monitor patients for excessive sedation, decreased respiratory rate, and ataxia.(3)

DISCUSSION: Collapse has been reported in a patients in whom clozapine and clonazepam were initiated simultaneously.(4) Somnolence, confusion, ataxia, and disorientation were reported in a patient following the addition of clozapine to clonazepam therapy.(5) Collapse has been reported in three patients maintained on diazepam in whom clozapine was initiated.(6,7) Cardiac arrest and death during sleep were reported in a patient in whom clozapine and oxazepam were initiated simultaneously.(4) Delirium has been reported in four clozapine-treated patients in whom lorazepam was initiated.(5,8) Respiratory arrest and death were reported in one patient in whom clozapine was initiated who had been maintained on oral lorazepam. The patient received three supplemental doses of intravenous lorazepam for increased psychosis and was found dead 12 hours later.(9)

Benzodiazepines/Ethyl Alcohol

SEVERITY LEVEL: 2-Severe Interaction: Action is required to reduce the risk of severe adverse interaction.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use may result in additive central nervous system depressant effects. Concurrent use may also result in altered absorption, altered distribution, or decreased elimination leading to higher concentrations of the benzodiazepine in the brain.(1-4)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of benzodiazepines and alcohol-containing products may result in enhanced disruption of psychomotor performance and increased central nervous system depression. Increased CNS depression may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: None determined.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Patients should be informed that alcohol consumption may result in significant decreased psychomotor performance and its associated risks. Use of a short acting benzodiazepine may minimize the potential for extreme effects. If suicide or drug abuse is a concern, benzodiazepine use may be ill advised, since alcohol tends to greatly increase benzodiazepine-induced CNS depression in acute overdosage. Patients should be informed about unsuspected sources of alcohol such as medications. Alcohol is used to improve docetaxel and paclitaxel solubility. - The quantity of alcohol in paclitaxel injection formulations (0.385-0.396 grams/mL) is similar across manufacturers. A paclitaxel 200 mg dose contains approximately 13 grams of alcohol. - The quantity of alcohol in docetaxel formulations varies approximately 3-fold depending upon the manufacturer. FDA data on alcohol content (18): Product Manufacturer Alcohol/200 mg dose Docetaxel Inj. Pfizer 6.4 grams Docetaxel Inj. Sandoz 5.5 grams Docetaxel Inj. Accord 4.0 grams Taxotere-one vial Sanofi 4.0 grams formulation Docetaxel Inj. Hospira 3.7 grams Docefrez Sun Pharma 2.9 grams Taxotere-two vial Sanofi 2.0 grams formulation

DISCUSSION: Several articles have detailed enhanced disruption of psychomotor performance and increased CNS depression with concurrent use of diazepam and alcohol.(1-6) Evidence shows that temazepam and the other short-acting or intermediate-acting benzodiazepines (e.g., alprazolam, halazepam, triazolam) tend to result in less profound alcohol interactions.(7) Although one study showed no effect on triazolam pharmacokinetics, a clinically significant pharmacodynamic interaction cannot be ruled out.(8) Other reports have shown clinically significant effects from concurrent triazolam and alcohol use.(9,10) In 8 healthy subjects, concurrent midazolam and alcohol resulted in impairment of immediate recall.(11) In a similar study, the hypnotic effect of midazolam was augmented by alcohol.(12) In a study involving 9 subjects, measurements of total reaction time were longer after concurrent alcohol and lorazepam as compared to the use of either agent alone.(13) Reports have been conflicting regarding the actions of chlordiazepoxide when combined with alcohol. Differences in time of exposure, dosage, and response parameters have been used to explain the inconsistent findings with chlordiazepoxide.(14)

Benzodiazepines/Opioids (Cough And Cold)

SEVERITY LEVEL: 2-Severe Interaction: Action is required to reduce the risk of severe adverse interaction.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use of opioids and benzodiazepines may result in additive CNS depression.(1)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of opioids and other CNS depressants, such as benzodiazepines, may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Concurrent use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may increase the risk of adverse effects.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Avoid prescribing opioid-including cough medications for patients taking CNS depressants such as benzodiazepines.(1) Respiratory depression can occur at any time during opioid therapy, especially during therapy initiation and following dosage increases. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. Consider these risks when using concurrently with other agents that may cause CNS depression.(2) If concurrent use is necessary, monitor patients for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(1) Discuss opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) with all patients when prescribing or renewing an opioid analgesic or medicine to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Consider prescribing an opioid reversal agent (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) to patients prescribed medicines to treat OUD or opioid analgesics who are at increased risk of opioid overdose (such as those taking CNS depressants) and when a patient has household members/close contacts at risk for accidental overdose. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program).(3)

DISCUSSION: Between 2002 and 2014, the number of patients receiving an opioid analgesic increased 8%, from 75 million to 81 million patients, and the number of patients receiving a benzodiazepine increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients. During this time, the proportion of patients receiving concurrent therapy increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients.(4) From 2004 to 2011, the rate of nonmedical use-related emergency room visits involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 11 to 34.2 per 100,000 and drug overdose deaths involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000. The proportion of prescription opioid analgesic deaths which also involved benzodiazepines increased from 18% to 31% during this time.(5) A prospective observational cohort study in North Carolina found that the rates of overdose death among patients co-dispensed opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines were 10 times higher than patients receiving opioid analgesics alone.(6) A case-cohort study of VA data from 2004-2009 found that the risk of death from overdose increased with concomitant opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Compared to patients with no history of benzodiazepines, patients with a history of benzodiazepine use (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.33) and patients with a current benzodiazepine prescription (HR=3.86) had an increased risk of fatal overdose.(7) A study found that opioid analgesics contributed to 77% of deaths in which benzodiazepines were determined to be a cause of death and that benzodiazepines contributed to 30% of deaths in which opioid analgesics were determined to be a cause of death. This study also found that other CNS depressants (including barbiturates, antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs, antiepileptic and antiparkinsonian drugs, anesthetics, autonomic nervous system drugs, and muscle relaxants) were contributory to death in many cases where opioid analgesics were also implicated.(8) A study found that alcohol was involved in 18.5% of opioid analgesic abuse-related ED visits and 22.1 percent of opioid analgesic-related deaths.(9) A study of 315,428 privately insured patients who filled at least one prescription for an opioid from 2001 to 2013 were enrolled in a retrospective study. Concurrent use of a benzodiazepine was recorded as having at least one day of overlap in a given calendar year. Baseline characteristics among opioid users with concurrent use of a benzodiazepine were older (44.5 v. 42.4, p<0.001), less likely to be men (35% v. 43%, p<0.001), and had a higher prevalence rate of every comorbidity examined (p<0.001). The proportion of opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepine use nearly doubled from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013. The primary outcome was an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose within a calendar year. Among all opioid users, the annual adjusted incidence for the primary outcome was 1.16% without concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to 2.42% with concurrent benzodiazepine use (OR 2.14; 95% CI 2.05-2.24; p<0.001). Intermittent opioid users (1.45% v. 1.02%; OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.33-1.51; p<0.001) and chronic opioid users (5.36% v. 3.13%; OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.67-1.96; p<0.001) also experienced a higher adjusted incidence of the primary outcome with concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to without concurrent benzodiazepine use, respectively.(10) In a nested case-control study of adults with a new opioid dispensing between 2010-2018, patients with concurrent use of an opioid with a benzodiazepine were significantly more likely to have opioid-related overdose compared to patients receiving opioids, benzodiazepines, or neither (OR 9.28; 95% CI 7.87, 10.93). Longer concurrent use of 1-7, 8-30, and 31-90 days was associated with 4.6, 12.1, and 26.7-fold higher likelihood of opioid-related overdose (p<0.01). Patients with overlapping prescriptions during previous 0-30, 31-60, and 61-90 days were 13.2, 6.0, and 3.2-times more likely to experience an overdose (p<0.01).(11)

Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

Benzodiazepines/Buprenorphine

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Buprenorphine is a partial agonist at mu-opioid receptors leading to ceiling effects which limit agonist activity, including respiratory depression, at high doses. However, concomitant benzodiazepine use (e.g. taken shortly after buprenorphine dose) or high doses of benzodiazepines may lead to potentiation of respiratory depression, counteracting the ceiling effect.(1,2) Concurrent use of buprenorphine and benzodiazepines may result in additive CNS depression.(3)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death. Fatal respiratory depression has occurred with the combination of buprenorphine and a benzodiazepine.(1-2,4-7) High benzodiazepine levels have been identified in 80% or more of buprenorphine fatalities.(6)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Patients with a history of alcohol or benzodiazepine abuse may be at risk for relapse and overuse or abuse of prescribed benzodiazepines.(1,2,4,6) Individuals with significant obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), sleep apnea, the elderly, and debilitated patients are at greater risk for respiratory depression from either agent.(1,2,8)

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Limit prescribing opioid analgesics with CNS depressants such as benzodiazepines to patients for whom alternatives are ineffective, not tolerated, or would be otherwise inadequate to provide sufficient management.(3) Medication assisted therapy (MAT) with buprenorphine is not contraindicated in patients taking CNS depressants; however discontinuation of CNS depressants is preferred in most cases. In some cases, monitoring at a higher level of care for tapering may be appropriate. In others gradual tapering or decreasing to the lowest effective dose of the CNS depressant is appropriate. For buprenorphine patients newly starting a benzodiazepine, consider beginning the benzodiazepine at a lower than usual dose, especially if predisposing factors (e.g. COPD, sleep apnea, debilitation, elderly) are present. High doses of benzodiazepines are associated with a greater risk for respiratory depression. Use the lowest effective dose and monitor for excessive sedation or respiratory depression, particularly in patients with predisposing risk factors for respiratory compromise.(1,2) Buprenorphine-naloxone combination products are used for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence. Patients with comorbid benzodiazepine dependence, on high doses of benzodiazepines, or a history of benzodiazepine abuse may require benzodiazepine detoxification prior to initiation of office-based buprenorphine treatment.(3) For patients receiving opioid maintenance treatment, it would be prudent to assure all controlled substance prescriptions are approved or written by the buprenorphine-naloxone provider.(5) Respiratory depression can occur at any time during opioid therapy, especially during therapy initiation and following dosage increases. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. Consider these risks when using concurrently with other agents that may cause CNS depression.(9) Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(3) Discuss opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone or nalmefene) with all patients when prescribing or renewing an opioid analgesic or medicine to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Consider prescribing opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) to patients prescribed medicines to treat OUD or opioid analgesics who are at increased risk of opioid overdose (such as those taking CNS depressants) and when a patient has household members/close contacts at risk for accidental overdose. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program).(10)

DISCUSSION: Buprenorphine is a partial agonist at mu-opioid receptors leading to ceiling effects which limits agonist activity, including respiratory depression, at high doses. However, concomitant benzodiazepine use (e.g. taking shortly after buprenorphine dose) or high doses of benzodiazepines may counteract the ceiling effect leading to potentiation of respiratory depression or sedative effects. High benzodiazepine levels have identified in 80% or more of buprenorphine fatalities.(6) Between 2002 and 2014, the number of patients receiving an opioid analgesic increased 8%, from 75 million to 81 million patients, and the number of patients receiving a benzodiazepine increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients. During this time, the proportion of patients receiving concurrent therapy increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients.(11) From 2004 to 2011, the rate of nonmedical use-related emergency room visits involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 11 to 34.2 per 100,000 and drug overdose deaths involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000. The proportion of prescription opioid analgesic deaths which also involved benzodiazepines increased from 18% to 31% during this time.(12) A prospective observational cohort study in North Carolina found that the rates of overdose death among patients co-dispensed opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines were 10 times higher than patients receiving opioid analgesics alone.(13) A case-cohort study of VA data from 2004-2009 found that the risk of death from overdose increased with concomitant opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Compared to patients with no history of benzodiazepines, patients with a history of benzodiazepine use (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.33) and patients with a current benzodiazepine prescription (HR=3.86) had an increased risk of fatal overdose.(14) A study found that opioid analgesics contributed to 77% of deaths in which benzodiazepines were determined to be a cause of death and that benzodiazepines contributed to 30% of deaths in which opioid analgesics were determined to be a cause of death. This study also found that other CNS depressants (including barbiturates, antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs, antiepileptic and antiparkinsonian drugs, anesthetics, autonomic nervous system drugs, and muscle relaxants) were contributory to death in many cases where opioid analgesics were also implicated.(15) A study found that alcohol was involved in 18.5% of opioid analgesic abuse-related ED visits and 22.1 percent of opioid analgesic-related deaths.(16) A study of 315,428 privately insured patients who filled at least one prescription for an opioid from 2001 to 2013 were enrolled in a retrospective study. Concurrent use of a benzodiazepine was recorded as having at least one day of overlap in a given calendar year. Baseline characteristics among opioid users with concurrent use of a benzodiazepine were older (44.5 v. 42.4, p<0.001), less likely to be men (35% v. 43%, p<0.001), and had a higher prevalence rate of every comorbidity examined (p<0.001). The proportion of opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepine use nearly doubled from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013. The primary outcome was an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose within a calendar year. Among all opioid users, the annual adjusted incidence for the primary outcome was 1.16% without concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to 2.42% with concurrent benzodiazepine use (OR 2.14; 95% CI 2.05-2.24; p<0.001). Intermittent opioid users (1.45% v. 1.02%; OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.33-1.51; p<0.001) and chronic opioid users (5.36% v. 3.13%; OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.67-1.96; p<0.001) also experienced a higher adjusted incidence of the primary outcome with concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to without concurrent benzodiazepine use, respectively.(17)

Benzodiazepines/Gabapentinoids

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1-3)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of benzodiazepines may result in elevated levels of and toxicity from gabapentin and pregabalin, including profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1-3)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Patients who are elderly, are taking other CNS depressants, have decreased renal function, and/or have conditions that reduce lung function (e.g. Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease [COPD]) may be at a higher risk of this interaction.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Limit prescribing benzodiazepines and gabapentinoids to patients for whom alternatives are ineffective, not tolerated, or would be otherwise inadequate to provide sufficient management of pain.(1) If concurrent use is necessary, limit the dosages and duration of each drug to the minimum possible while achieving the desired clinical effect. If starting a gabapentinoid with an benzodiazepine, prescribe a lower initial dose of the gabapentinoid than indicated in the absence of an opioid and titrate based upon clinical response. If a benzodiazepine is indicated (other than an indication of epilepsy) in a patient already taking a gabapentinoid, prescribe a lower dose of the benzodiazepine and titrate based upon clinical response.(1) Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(1)

DISCUSSION: Clinical trials have shown no pharmacokinetic interaction between pregabalin (300 mg BID) and lorazepam (1 mg single dose).(2) Among 49 case reports submitted to FDA over a 5 year period (2012-2017), 12 people died from respiratory depression with gabapentinoids. Two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials in healthy people, three observational studies, and several studies in animals were reviewed. A trial showed that using pregabalin alone and using it with an opioid pain reliever can depress breathing function. Three observational studies showed a relationship between gabapentinoids given before surgery and respiratory depression occurring after surgery. Several animal studies also showed that pregabalin plus opioids can depress respiratory function. Benzodiazepines are expected to have a similar effect when used with gabapentinoids.(1)

Benzodiazepines/Opioids (Extended Release)

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use of opioids and benzodiazepines may result in additive CNS depression.(1)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of opioids and other CNS depressants, such as benzodiazepines, may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Concurrent use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may increase the risk of adverse effects.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Limit prescribing opioid analgesics with CNS depressants such as benzodiazepines to patients for whom alternatives are ineffective, not tolerated, or otherwise inadequate to provide sufficient management of pain.(1) If concurrent use is necessary, limit the dosages and duration of each drug to the minimum possible while achieving the desired clinical effect. If starting a CNS depressant (for an indication other than epilepsy) with an opioid analgesic, prescribe a lower initial dose of the CNS depressant than indicated in the absence of an opioid and titrate based upon clinical response. If an opioid analgesic is indicated in a patient already taking a CNS depressant, prescribe a lower dose of the opioid and titrate based upon clinical response.(1) Respiratory depression can occur at any time during opioid therapy, especially during therapy initiation and following dosage increases. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. Consider these risks when using concurrently with other agents that may cause CNS depression.(2) Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(1) Discuss opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) with all patients when prescribing or renewing an opioid analgesic or medicine to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Consider prescribing an opioid reversal agent (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) to patients prescribed medicines to treat OUD or opioid analgesics who are at increased risk of opioid overdose (such as those taking CNS depressants) and when a patient has household members/close contacts at risk for accidental overdose. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program).(3)

DISCUSSION: Between 2002 and 2014, the number of patients receiving an opioid analgesic increased 8%, from 75 million to 81 million patients, and the number of patients receiving a benzodiazepine increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients. During this time, the proportion of patients receiving concurrent therapy increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients.(4) From 2004 to 2011, the rate of nonmedical use-related emergency room visits involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 11 to 34.2 per 100,000 and drug overdose deaths involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000. The proportion of prescription opioid analgesic deaths which also involved benzodiazepines increased from 18% to 31% during this time.(5) A prospective observational cohort study in North Carolina found that the rates of overdose death among patients co-dispensed opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines were 10 times higher than patients receiving opioid analgesics alone.(6) A case-cohort study of VA data from 2004-2009 found that the risk of death from overdose increased with concomitant opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Compared to patients with no history of benzodiazepines, patients with a history of benzodiazepine use (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.33) and patients with a current benzodiazepine prescription (HR=3.86) had an increased risk of fatal overdose.(7) A study found that opioid analgesics contributed to 77% of deaths in which benzodiazepines were determined to be a cause of death and that benzodiazepines contributed to 30% of deaths in which opioid analgesics were determined to be a cause of death. This study also found that other CNS depressants (including barbiturates, antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs, antiepileptic and antiparkinsonian drugs, anesthetics, autonomic nervous system drugs, and muscle relaxants) were contributory to death in many cases where opioid analgesics were also implicated.(8) A study found that alcohol was involved in 18.5% of opioid analgesic abuse-related ED visits and 22.1 percent of opioid analgesic-related deaths.(9) A study of 315,428 privately insured patients who filled at least one prescription for an opioid from 2001 to 2013 were enrolled in a retrospective study. Concurrent use of a benzodiazepine was recorded as having at least one day of overlap in a given calendar year. Baseline characteristics among opioid users with concurrent use of a benzodiazepine were older (44.5 v. 42.4, p<0.001), less likely to be men (35% v. 43%, p<0.001), and had a higher prevalence rate of every comorbidity examined (p<0.001). The proportion of opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepine use nearly doubled from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013. The primary outcome was an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose within a calendar year. Among all opioid users, the annual adjusted incidence for the primary outcome was 1.16% without concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to 2.42% with concurrent benzodiazepine use (OR 2.14; 95% CI 2.05-2.24; p<0.001). Intermittent opioid users (1.45% v. 1.02%; OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.33-1.51; p<0.001) and chronic opioid users (5.36% v. 3.13%; OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.67-1.96; p<0.001) also experienced a higher adjusted incidence of the primary outcome with concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to without concurrent benzodiazepine use, respectively.(10) In a nested case-control study of adults with a new opioid dispensing between 2010-2018, patients with concurrent use of an opioid with a benzodiazepine were significantly more likely to have opioid-related overdose compared to patients receiving opioids, benzodiazepines, or neither (OR 9.28; 95% CI 7.87, 10.93). Longer concurrent use of 1-7, 8-30, and 31-90 days was associated with 4.6, 12.1, and 26.7-fold higher likelihood of opioid-related overdose (p<0.01). Patients with overlapping prescriptions during previous 0-30, 31-60, and 61-90 days were 13.2, 6.0, and 3.2-times more likely to experience an overdose (p<0.01).(11)

Benzodiazepines/Opioids (Immediate Release)

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use of opioids and benzodiazepines may result in additive CNS depression.(1)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of opioids and other CNS depressants, such as benzodiazepines, may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Concurrent use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may increase the risk of adverse effects.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Limit prescribing opioid analgesics with CNS depressants such as benzodiazepines to patients for whom alternatives are ineffective, not tolerated, or would be otherwise inadequate to provide sufficient management of pain.(1) If concurrent use is necessary, limit the dosages and duration of each drug to the minimum possible while achieving the desired clinical effect. If starting a CNS depressant (for an indication other than epilepsy) with an opioid analgesic, prescribe a lower initial dose of the CNS depressant than indicated in the absence of an opioid and titrate based upon clinical response. If an opioid analgesic is indicated in a patient already taking a CNS depressant, prescribe a lower dose of the opioid and titrate based upon clinical response.(1) Respiratory depression can occur at any time during opioid therapy, especially during therapy initiation and following dosage increases. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. Consider these risks when using concurrently with other agents that may cause CNS depression.(2) Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(1) Discuss opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) with all patients when prescribing or renewing an opioid analgesic or medicine to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Consider prescribing an opioid reversal agent (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) to patients prescribed medicines to treat OUD or opioid analgesics who are at increased risk of opioid overdose (such as those taking CNS depressants) and when a patient has household members/close contacts at risk for accidental overdose. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program).(3)

DISCUSSION: Between 2002 and 2014, the number of patients receiving an opioid analgesic increased 8%, from 75 million to 81 million patients, and the number of patients receiving a benzodiazepine increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients. During this time, the proportion of patients receiving concurrent therapy increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients.(4) From 2004 to 2011, the rate of nonmedical use-related emergency room visits involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 11 to 34.2 per 100,000 and drug overdose deaths involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000. The proportion of prescription opioid analgesic deaths which also involved benzodiazepines increased from 18% to 31% during this time.(5) A prospective observational cohort study in North Carolina found that the rates of overdose death among patients co-dispensed opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines were 10 times higher than patients receiving opioid analgesics alone.(6) A case-cohort study of VA data from 2004-2009 found that the risk of death from overdose increased with concomitant opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Compared to patients with no history of benzodiazepines, patients with a history of benzodiazepine use (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.33) and patients with a current benzodiazepine prescription (HR=3.86) had an increased risk of fatal overdose.(7) A study found that opioid analgesics contributed to 77% of deaths in which benzodiazepines were determined to be a cause of death and that benzodiazepines contributed to 30% of deaths in which opioid analgesics were determined to be a cause of death. This study also found that other CNS depressants (including barbiturates, antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs, antiepileptic and antiparkinsonian drugs, anesthetics, autonomic nervous system drugs, and muscle relaxants) were contributory to death in many cases where opioid analgesics were also implicated.(8) A study found that alcohol was involved in 18.5% of opioid analgesic abuse-related ED visits and 22.1 percent of opioid analgesic-related deaths.(9) A study of 315,428 privately insured patients who filled at least one prescription for an opioid from 2001 to 2013 were enrolled in a retrospective study. Concurrent use of a benzodiazepine was recorded as having at least one day of overlap in a given calendar year. Baseline characteristics among opioid users with concurrent use of a benzodiazepine were older (44.5 v. 42.4, p<0.001), less likely to be men (35% v. 43%, p<0.001), and had a higher prevalence rate of every comorbidity examined (p<0.001). The proportion of opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepine use nearly doubled from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013. The primary outcome was an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose within a calendar year. Among all opioid users, the annual adjusted incidence for the primary outcome was 1.16% without concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to 2.42% with concurrent benzodiazepine use (OR 2.14; 95% CI 2.05-2.24; p<0.001). Intermittent opioid users (1.45% v. 1.02%; OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.33-1.51; p<0.001) and chronic opioid users (5.36% v. 3.13%; OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.67-1.96; p<0.001) also experienced a higher adjusted incidence of the primary outcome with concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to without concurrent benzodiazepine use, respectively.(10) In a nested case-control study of adults with a new opioid dispensing between 2010-2018, patients with concurrent use of an opioid with a benzodiazepine were significantly more likely to have opioid-related overdose compared to patients receiving opioids, benzodiazepines, or neither (OR 9.28; 95% CI 7.87, 10.93). Longer concurrent use of 1-7, 8-30, and 31-90 days was associated with 4.6, 12.1, and 26.7-fold higher likelihood of opioid-related overdose (p<0.01). Patients with overlapping prescriptions during previous 0-30, 31-60, and 61-90 days were 13.2, 6.0, and 3.2-times more likely to experience an overdose (p<0.01).(11)

Benzodiazepines/Selected Opioids For Mat

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Concurrent use of diacetylmorphine or methadone and benzodiazepines may result in additive CNS depression.(1,2) Levomethadone is an enantiomer of methadone.(3)

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of diacetylmorphine or methadone and other CNS depressants, such as benzodiazepines, may result in profound sedation, respiratory depression, coma, and/or death.(1,2)

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Concurrent use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may increase the risk of adverse effects.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Medication assisted treatment (MAT) with diacetylmorphine or methadone is not contraindicated in patients taking benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants; however, discontinuation of benzodiazepines and other CNS depressants is preferred in most cases. In some cases, monitoring at a higher level of care for tapering may be appropriate. In others, gradual tapering or decreasing to the lowest effective dose of the benzodiazapine or CNS depressant is appropriate. Consider other medications and nonpharmacologic treatments to address anxiety or insomnia. Ensure that other health care providers prescribing benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants are aware of the patient's methadone treatment.(4) Respiratory depression can occur at any time during opioid therapy, especially during therapy initiation and following dosage increases. The risk of opioid-related overdose or overdose-related death is increased with higher opioid doses, and this risk persists over the course of therapy. Consider these risks when using concurrently with other agents that may cause CNS depression.(5) Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for unusual dizziness or lightheadedness, extreme sleepiness, slowed or difficult breathing, or unresponsiveness.(1) Educate patients about the risks of concurrent use and monitor for use of prescribed and illicit benzodiazepines or other CNS depressants.(4) Discuss opioid reversal agents (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) with all patients when prescribing or renewing an opioid analgesic or medicine to treat opioid use disorder (OUD). Consider prescribing an opioid reversal agent (e.g., naloxone, nalmefene) to patients prescribed medicines to treat OUD or opioid analgesics who are at increased risk of opioid overdose (such as those taking CNS depressants) and when a patient has household members/close contacts at risk for accidental overdose. Discuss the options for obtaining an opioid reversal agent (e.g., prescription, over-the-counter, or as part of a community-based program).(6)

DISCUSSION: Between 2002 and 2014, the number of patients receiving an opioid analgesic increased 8%, from 75 million to 81 million patients, and the number of patients receiving a benzodiazepine increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients. During this time, the proportion of patients receiving concurrent therapy increased 31%, from 23 million to 30 million patients.(7) From 2004 to 2011, the rate of nonmedical use-related emergency room visits involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 11 to 34.2 per 100,000 and drug overdose deaths involving both opioids and benzodiazepines increased from 0.6 to 1.7 per 100,000. The proportion of prescription opioid analgesic deaths which also involved benzodiazepines increased from 18% to 31% during this time.(8) A prospective observational cohort study in North Carolina found that the rates of overdose death among patients co-dispensed opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines were 10 times higher than patients receiving opioid analgesics alone.(9) A case-cohort study of VA data from 2004-2009 found that the risk of death from overdose increased with concomitant opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines. Compared to patients with no history of benzodiazepines, patients with a history of benzodiazepine use (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.33) and patients with a current benzodiazepine prescription (HR=3.86) had an increased risk of fatal overdose.(10) A study found that opioid analgesics contributed to 77% of deaths in which benzodiazepines were determined to be a cause of death and that benzodiazepines contributed to 30% of deaths in which opioid analgesics were determined to be a cause of death. This study also found that other CNS depressants (including barbiturates, antipsychotic and neuroleptic drugs, antiepileptic and antiparkinsonian drugs, anesthetics, autonomic nervous system drugs, and muscle relaxants) were contributory to death in many cases where opioid analgesics were also implicated.(11) A study found that alcohol was involved in 18.5% of opioid analgesic abuse-related ED visits and 22.1 percent of opioid analgesic-related deaths.(12) A study of 315,428 privately insured patients who filled at least one prescription for an opioid from 2001 to 2013 were enrolled in a retrospective study. Concurrent use of a benzodiazepine was recorded as having at least one day of overlap in a given calendar year. Baseline characteristics among opioid users with concurrent use of a benzodiazepine were older (44.5 v. 42.4, p<0.001), less likely to be men (35% v. 43%, p<0.001), and had a higher prevalence rate of every comorbidity examined (p<0.001). The proportion of opioid users with concurrent benzodiazepine use nearly doubled from 9% in 2001 to 17% in 2013. The primary outcome was an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose within a calendar year. Among all opioid users, the annual adjusted incidence for the primary outcome was 1.16% without concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to 2.42% with concurrent benzodiazepine use (OR 2.14; 95% CI 2.05-2.24; p<0.001). Intermittent opioid users (1.45% v. 1.02%; OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.33-1.51; p<0.001) and chronic opioid users (5.36% v. 3.13%; OR 1.81; 95% CI 1.67-1.96; p<0.001) also experienced a higher adjusted incidence of the primary outcome with concurrent benzodiazepine use compared to without concurrent benzodiazepine use, respectively.(13) In a nested case-control study of adults with a new opioid dispensing between 2010-2018, patients with concurrent use of an opioid with a benzodiazepine were significantly more likely to have opioid-related overdose compared to patients receiving opioids, benzodiazepines, or neither (OR 9.28; 95% CI 7.87, 10.93). Longer concurrent use of 1-7, 8-30, and 31-90 days was associated with 4.6, 12.1, and 26.7-fold higher likelihood of opioid-related overdose (p<0.01). Patients with overlapping prescriptions during previous 0-30, 31-60, and 61-90 days were 13.2, 6.0, and 3.2-times more likely to experience an overdose (p<0.01).(14) While concomitant use of MAT with CNS depressants increases the risk of adverse reactions, barriers to MAT can pose a greater risk of morbidity and mortality due to opioid use disorder.(4)

Benzodiazepines/Selected Stimulants

SEVERITY LEVEL: 3-Moderate Interaction: Assess the risk to the patient and take action as needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION: Benzodiazepines and stimulants exhibit opposing effects on the CNS.

CLINICAL EFFECTS: Concurrent use of benzodiazepines and stimulants may reduce the clinical effectiveness of both the benzodiazepine and the stimulant. In addition, concurrent use may mask overdose symptoms of the benzodiazepine, such as drowsiness and inability to focus.

PREDISPOSING FACTORS: Concurrent use of alcohol or other CNS depressants may increase the risk of adverse effects.

PATIENT MANAGEMENT: Limit prescribing benzodiazepines with CNS stimulants such as amphetamines to patients for whom alternatives are inadequate. If concurrent use is necessary, limit the dosages and duration of each drug to the minimum possible while achieving the desired clinical effect. Monitor patients receiving concurrent therapy for signs of substance abuse.

DISCUSSION: Analysis of the 2015 and 2016 National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that misuse of benzodiazepines was strongly associated with misuse of or dependences on stimulants.(1) Benzodiazepines are used to reduce the adverse effects of stimulant use, such as insomnia.(2) Patients abusing benzodiazepines in combination with other drugs tend to consume higher dosages of benzodiazepines than patients abusing only benzodiazepines.(3)

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• Alcohol intoxication
• Myasthenia gravis
• Shock

• Angle-closure glaucoma
• Borderline personality disorder
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
• Coma
• Depression
• Drug abuse
• Pregnancy
• Respiratory depression
• Sleep apnea
• Suicidal ideation

• Complex sleep behavior
• Disease of liver
• Hypoalbuminemia
• Hypotension
• Kidney disease with reduction in glomerular filtration rate (GFr)
• Porphyria

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More Frequent

• Muscle weakness

Less Frequent

• Acute cognitive impairment
• Behavioral disorders
• CNS depression

Rare or Very Rare

• Abnormal hepatic function tests
• Accidental fall
• Agranulocytosis
• Anaphylaxis
• Anemia
• Angioedema
• Aplastic anemia
• Apnea
• Coma
• Depression
• Drug dependence
• Drug-induced psychosis
• Dyspnea
• Eosinophilia
• Hallucinations
• Hemolytic anemia
• Hostility
• Hypotension
• Jaundice
• Leukocytosis
• Leukopenia
• Manic disorder
• Memory impairment
• Neutropenic disorder
• Respiratory depression
• Seizure disorder
• Skin rash
• Sleep walking disorder
• Suicidal ideation
• Thrombocytopenic disorder
• Urinary retention

More Frequent

• Ataxia
• Dizziness
• Drowsy
• Dyspepsia
• Sedation
• Slurred speech

Less Frequent

• Diarrhea
• Fatigue
• General weakness

Rare or Very Rare

• Aggressive behavior
• Agitation
• Alopecia
• Anorexia
• Anticholinergic toxicity
• Blurred vision
• Complex sleep behavior
• Concentration difficulty
• Conjunctivitis
• Constipation
• Cramps
• Delirium
• Depersonalization
• Diplopia
• Disturbance in thinking
• Dream disorder
• Dysarthria
• Dysuria
• Excitement
• Glossitis
• Headache disorder
• Hiccups
• Irritability
• Libido changes
• Menstrual disorder
• Nausea
• Nervousness
• Nightmares
• Nystagmus
• Paranoid disorder
• Polydipsia
• Pruritus of skin
• Sialorrhea
• Sleep disorder
• Stomatitis
• Syncope
• Tachycardia
• Tremor
• Urinary incontinence
• Vertigo
• Visual changes
• Xerostomia
• Yawning

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